The following is a preliminary model of the atom based on QADI mathematical research of atomic binding energy values and binding energy formulas. This atomic model is consistent within the framework of the Aether Physics Model and also with empirically observed binding energy values and the work of Linus Pauling.
As in all accepted atomic structure theories, the nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. There are certain configurations of atomic structures that are more stable than others. As is generally accepted in modern physics, the Aether Physics Model also sees specific cluster sizes involving the values of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126. Often these values are called "magic numbers" and are associated with "shells" that make up the nucleus. Unlike the electron shells, which appear to be fixed and of definite structure, the nucleus appears to change shape and abandon smaller clusters to make larger clusters.
Electron shells are defined by a clear formula in which there are 7 specific shells. The formula is 2n2 where n is a value from 1 to 7. The number of electrons that can reside on each shell are therefore 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, and 98. These values are similar, but different from, the nucleus structure.
The Aether Physics Model shows that there are three primary particles; the electron, proton, and neutron. The structure of each of these three particles is that of a primary momentum that looks like a band with a constant spin. The momentum for each particle is determined by the derived mass of each particle times the speed of light.
electron
proton
neutron
When we think of momentum, our direct experience of mass tells us that momentum is a mass times a velocity. We normally conceive of mass as being primary to momentum. That is, momentum is seen as a secondary characteristic of mass and not the other way around. In our normal physical experience, there is no reason to question this view.
But at the subatomic level of the proton, neutron and electron, these particles are constantly in motion. There is no such thing as a subatomic particle that doesn't spin and/or merely sits quietly with no velocity. In fact, nobody has ever been able to stop the spin of a subatomic particle without destroying it. When protons are smashed with neutrons in a particle accelerator, the particles break up into smaller spinning quantities and then disappear almost instantly. These smaller quantities are given the category of "quark" and a lot of research has been done to produce and analyze different types of "quarks." Despite years of research, no scientist has ever taken three quarks and put them together to make a proton or neutron. Quarks and other subatomic pieces, it would appear, are nothing but leftover debris caused by destroying a perfectly good proton or neutron. It is as though we are trying to understand fine crystal china by slamming the glassware against a brick wall and examining the pieces.
Another important observation is the momentum of a particle is a mass times the speed of photons. If the mass were separable from the speed of photons, it would violate General Relativity since the mass would be free to accelerate to infinity.
All momentum (and thus all mass) can be traced back to the Gforce. The Gforce has a prime momentum that is a key component of permeability, permittivity, conductance, Coulomb's constant and the gravitational constant. It is a tremendous reciprocal force beyond comparison to any other force in the Universe. It may not be what physicists are hoping to find (and I believe this is why this model hasn't been proposed before), but the Gforce appears to be a primary force that gave rise to the entire Universe. If one were to liken it to the Force in Star Wars, they wouldn't be far off. If one were to characterize this Gforce as God, or Supreme Being, or Great Architect of the Universe, they wouldn't be far off, either. Whatever this prime force is, it possesses some of the qualities of a living thing and is the source of all things animate and inanimate.
If it weren't for the mathematics that clearly defines this Primary Force and shows a clear, undeniable relationship to atomic structure, this page would be a science fiction short story. But as will be seen, the Gforce is very real and is fundamental to all of Quantum Mechanics. The resulting description of subatomic particles as quanta of primary momentum is an accurate description of subatomic structure and results in very real physics discoveries.
Primary Angular Momentum
Energy can manifest with a geometry of cylinders, or bands. In the case of a pulse of light, a cylinder of power is produced, which travels in time. A light pulse travels as an outward expanding cylinder of power until the energy is absorbed by other subatomic particles through a transfer of angular momentum. In the case of closed systems, such as a resonant Tesla coil, the power field swings back and forth; creating a standing wave.
The angular momentum of subatomic particles, however, contains in a split band that spins in definite direction with a definite velocity. There is no transverse or longitudinal (outward expanding) movement of particle mass in an electron, proton, or neutron as there is in energy (photons.) A subatomic particle has only spin and it does not radiate.
As seen in the mathematics of the atom, the subatomic particles view as having momentum and length. It has often been assumed the Compton wavelength of a subatomic particle refers to the particle's radius. Observations of subatomic particle's binding energy reveals the radius is not constant; even for the same particle. In mechanical systems at the macro level of observation, this would not be possible. But since the momentum of the particle is primary to its mass, it derives its spin, not from inanimate mechanical interactions, but from the Aether (which is a rotating magnetic field).
In the equation:
the strong nuclear force carrier of each proton (expressed in single dimension charge) defines as the square root of the angular momentum of the particle times the conductance of the Aether. The conductance of the Aether imparts rotation to subatomic particles and results in the strong nuclear force (electromagnetism) characteristic.
Elementary Charge
Elementary charge exists as a sphere with dimensions of charge (as opposed to dimensions of length.) Electrons produce a negative sphere of charge in the center of an Aether sphere and protons produce a positive sphere of charge. The neutron composes of a bound proton and electron plus a extra quantum of angular momentum. The neutron, with its proton and captured electron, has neutral charge. Electrostatic charge is still present in the neutron, but it is neutralized.
Here are the equations for elementary charge. The electrostatic charge is the same for all subatomic particles, as the fine structure constant for each balances the equations to the same elementary charge value.
hp and hn are defined as the mass of the proton and neutron respectively times the speed of light. p and n are the fine structure constants for the proton and neutron respectively.
Neutrinos
The concept of the neutron being composed of a proton and electron is not new at all. In fact, it is well known in beta decay that a neutron decays into a proton and electron. In the Standard Model it is also said an anti-neutrino is produced.
The purpose of the neutrino was to account for the extra energy that appeared to come out with the electron. There was more energy than could be accounted for, so a massless particle with angular momentum (the neutrino and anti-neutrino) was deduced.
The neutrino was said to have left hand spin only, and therefore that enables it to exist without mass (according to the Higgs Boson theory of mass.) The neutrino is said to exist without mass, and yet one of the dimensions for the neutrino is mass. More recent experiments seem to indicate that the neutrino does, in fact, have a small amount of mass.
The whole thing about the neutrino is that physicists demand it exists in order to preserve the conservation of energy law. But there is no clear physical evidence for the existence of the neutrino. Bohr believed physicists should entertain the idea that conservation of energy does not apply to the neutron decay. Whether that was the right path to take or not, physicists were not going to allow their sacred law to be broken.
I have devised an equation that shows the neutrino is actually stored energy within a proton. The kinetic energy imparted to an electron is captured in the proton along with the electron to produce a neutron. The reason the captured energy varies is due to the location of the neutron within the atom. Neutrons near the center of an atom have stronger electromagnetic forces acting on them, thus they encapsulate slightly more kinetic energy than neutrons near the outer regions of the atom.
For more information on the Standard Model version of the neutrino, visit the Neutrino Physics page by Hitoshi Murayama.
Binding Energy
I prefer to follow the data and find equations that fit the data, without any regard for preconceived ideas. Science should be a study born of discovery, not determinism.
Other equations appear to show all atomic isotopes release more or less energy than their mass would allow. It can be shown there is not a single isotope that is 100% conserving of energy.
I attribute the seeming non-conservation of energy at the subatomic level to the interaction of the particle strong forces acting on each other. Spacetime is dynamic and actually is the source of perpetual spin for the subatomic particles. By the alignment of subatomic particles in the atom at a given distance extra photons can be produced between the particles using the Casimir effect. This results in more (or less) energy being released from the atom than the mass of the particle should allow. Energy does always conserve. But until the energy that maintains the spin of the subatomic particles is also quantified, it will appear that there is a violation of energy conservation.
Almost all isotopes release more energy when "split" than when they are assembled. The one odd element is lithium. Lithium increases in energy when it is produced. This extra energy comes from the strong force within the atom. This explains why lithium makes such long lasting batteries and why lithium batteries are susceptible to explosion when exposed to x-rays. By applying high energy to the lithium in molecules, the lithium expands and contracts like a pump. When it is disassembling (expanding) the lithium releases energy, but when it is reassembling (contracting) the lithium gets its extra energy from the Casimir effect, not from incoming radiation.
Pattern of Nuclear Structure
Protons join with protons and neutrons join with neutrons. Why this is is yet to be quantified. The protons and neutrons are held together by the force acting on the electromagnetic charges (strong nuclear force.) In the graphic below, a proton and neutron join together to produce a deuteron isotope.
An atom is not held together by energy. The term "binding energy" is a misnomer. The atoms are held together by force. The binding energy is a result of the particle magnetic moment causing a vibration within the binding force. Force times length equal energy.
The Aether determines the structures of atoms. There is a pattern to the development of the nucleus, just as there is a pattern to the development of the electron orbital structure.Wolfgang Pauli1 deduced that no two particles, in either the nucleus or the electron orbital structure, can share the same placements in atomic structure.
Similar to the electron orbital structure, the nucleus follows a pattern in shell structure. Since the particles themselves cannot determine what the other particles are doing, the structure of the nucleus must be due to the structure of the Aether. Linus Pauling2 deduced that in addition to the orbital shells having the magic numbers of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126, and that these shells form three separate layers.The three layers he called the "mantle", "core or outer core", and "inner core".
Pauling states that within the structures of these three layers, the protons and neutrons bind in small clusters called spherons. These spherons are generally a helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons), a proton and two neutrons, and two neutrons.
This means, for example, that in the first layer and its first shell there can be up to 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Filling both the proton and neutron portions of the layer and shell produces the largest "binding energies".
The APM expands on Pauling's work to map the pattern of nucleus spin. From this pattern I was able to deduce the next magic number in the sequence to be 184. So the complete sequence of magic numbers (for elements available on Earth) is 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, 184.
Below is a scan of Pauling's spheron configurations for the magic numbers.
Nucleon Configurations for the Magic Numbers from Principles of Radioisotope Methodology,3 by Grafton D. Chase and Joseph L. Rabinowitz
Pauling's spheron structure can be expanded to account for the magic number 28 and 184 while showing the pattern of nucleus development.
In the chart below the values from Pauling's charts are laid out by spheron and shell number. Pauling's chart has been expanded to include the magic number 28 and the new magic number 184.
Chart A Pauling's Nucleon Configurations for the Magic Numbers expanded to include numbers 28 and 184. by David W. Thomson
Chart B shows the spin associated with each element and shell. Above shell one there are two "halves" to each shell, which are designated a and b. The spin changes for each half shell. The pattern begins with 1/2 spin in shell one of the Mantle. Then there is 3/2 spin in shell 2a and 1/2 spin in shell 2b. The next sequence begins with 5/2 spin in shell 3a, then 1/2 spin in the Outer Core shell 1, and then 3/2 spin in the Mantle. The fourth sequence begins with 7/2 spin in Mantle shell 4a, then 3/2 spin in Outer Core shell 2a, then 5/2 spin in Mantle shell 4b, and 1/2 spin Outer Core 2b. The fifth sequence is then 9/2 spin in Mantle shell 5a, then 5/2 spin in Outer Core shell 3a, then 7/2 spin in Mantle shell 5b, then 3/2 spin in and 1/2 spin in Outer Core 3b. The remaining sequences follow the same pattern. Chart C shows the series order of the nucleus fill sequence.
Chart B Spin per spheron subshell by David W. Thomson
Chart D shows the number of nucleons pershell. The values are calculated by Pauling's formula 2j+1, where j is the spin as shown in chart B. Chart E is the cumulative total of the nucleons per spheron shell as the nucleus fills.
The equations for calculating the nuclear spin per subshells a and b are:
a = s - 1/2 b = s - 3/2
where s is the shell number that a and b belong to.
Applying the nuclear spin equations to Pauling's formula for the maximum number of nucleons in a nuclear shell we get:
The numbers in yellow represent the shell numbers, the red circles represent the subshell a and the blue circles represent the subshell b. Each spheron of the Mantle, Outer Core, and Inner Core follows the exact same structural system. The circles are not intended to represent the actual geometry of the nucleus, but merely to give a general representation of the equation.
If the total number (tn) of nucleons that can fit on a spheron shell are
tn = a + b
then the equation can be further simplified to
tn = 4s - 2
Calculating Atomic Spin
The theoretical spin for any isotope can be calculated from the above charts. All elements with an even number of protons and an even number of neutrons have spin 0.
If there is an odd number of either protons or neutrons and an even number of the other, then take the odd number and locate the closest cumulative total in chart E. For example, let's look up the spin of Krypton 83. Krypton has an even number of protons, so look up the number of neutrons in chart E. There are 47 neutrons in Krypton 83 so 50 is the closest number to 47. 50 is in the Mantle shell 5a. Look up to chart B in Mantle shell 5a and the spin is 4.5, or 9/2. The spin for Krypton 83 is 9/2.
If both the proton and neutron numbers are odd, then look up the closest number for the values of both the protons and neutrons and locate the two spin numbers. Add them together and you have the total spin for that isotope. For example, let's look up the spin of Iridium 190. Iridium 190 has 77 protons and 113 neutrons. The spin for the proton number is closest to 82 and is 5.5 or 11/2. The spin for the neutron number is closest to 126 and is 6.5 or 13/2. Adding the two together gets a spin of 24/2, or 12 spin.
In the case of Iridium 190, the actual spin found in the empirical data is 4 spin. Either the calculation method needs adjusting, or the empirical data needs to be better scrutinized. But in most cases, this method does produce the correct nuclear spin.
Material Physics 
electron
proton
neutron
